Below is the link to my self-assessment on leadership commmunication skills and developing an improvement plan. It consists of a table that has numerous specific points relevant to all aspects I have learned throughout this class.
For this particular task, I have to put a mark to the appropriate level of ability.
This is a great way to measure your personal communication and writing skills, especially after taking this particular class.
Assessing Leadership Communication Skills & Developing an Improvement Plan.htm231K
View Download
Friday, December 15, 2006
Thursday, December 14, 2006
Resolving Conflicts in the Workplace
http://kanvid.com/resolving-conflicts.htm
This is Lawrence Schwimmer's famous program, based on the premise that everyone benefits if people resolve conflicts in an open, upfront manner.
Schwimmer's six techniques are introduced, and explained: "I" versus "you" language, Anticipation, Self-interest, Meta-talk, Limit-setting, and Consequences
Some of these techniques we're familiar with - for example #1, saying "I think that.. ." versus simply stating "you are…" Other techniques among the six are probably new to viewers. Put together, these six techniques set the stage for effective communication. We then watch these six techniques in action, as they are used to resolve common workplace conflicts.
Using the techniques in this video, viewers will learn to:
-Set limits that build mutual respect.
-Use key words and phrases that establish a spirit of cooperation.
-Build win/win relationships.
-Minimize manipulation, harassment, and intimidation.
-Deal with non-performing co-workers.
-Resolve conflicting job assignments.
Guarantee: Viewers will learn techniques to turn workplace arguments into constructive discussions.
Conflict Managemet in the Workplace from Leadership Perspectives
Leaders have a somewhat special point of view. Their basic aim is to get other people to do things. Even though it may sometimes seem that being a supervisor would be easy because anybody can give orders, that is not true. Some managers may try to manage by ordering people about, but these managers are usually not very productive. Bossing people is not leading them. You can get only so far trying to boss people because they resent it. Most people would rather be led than bossed.
Because leadership skills are developed—you are not born with them—don’t forget to give your leadership skills a workout at every opportunity. This does not mean that you should go around telling people what to do, but be aware of opportunities to be a leader. For instance, when working with a group, try to get a cooperative effort from the group rather than have everyone pulling in a different direction. You can provide leadership by taking actions that would help the group complete its task and by helping the group members maintain good working relationships. Such practice will help you develop your own leadership style.
Understanding Conflict Management
Avoidance
Avoidance requires us to refrain from any action that might force a confrontation. People avoid conflict by refusing to take a stance, by physically leaving or by “tuning out.” When it is merely a way to hide from conflict, avoidance is an ineffective technique. Most problems do not disappear when they are ignored. An ostrich that buries its head in the sand when faced with unpleasant situations is practicing “avoidance.”
Despite the arguments against avoidance, it can be an effective strategy when you know the source(s) of the conflict will disappear or get better in a short period of time. Another situation might be one in which the opposing parties are so angry that feelings should not be bared at that time.
Accommodating
People accommodate when they attempt to make peace by either calming down the combatants or pointing out their common interests. They are then reacting to the emotions, not to the problem. The accommodating approach, like avoidance, does not cause the source of the conflict to go away—only to remain hidden for a while.
The quieting of festering feelings may seem to be a useful technique, and occasions arise in which accommodating should be used. However, someone who takes this action frequently is not resolving the real issues. Probably a more effective use of the accommodating method is to direct the attention of the competing individuals to the accomplishment of a goal that is important to both sides, if such a goal exists.
Forcing
Forcing takes place when a solution to conflict is imposed by any of the following: (1) the most powerful of the two sides, or (2) the supervisor. Forcers use authority, threats, and intimidation; they might also call for majority rule when they know they will win.
If one side in the conflict has more power than the other, the stronger side can simply intimidate the weaker. Two problems exist with this approach. First, the resolution is not guaranteed to be in the best interest of both parties or the company—only that it will be in the best interest of the stronger party. Second, the losing party will be frustrated by the results and may attempt to retaliate or sabotage the plan. This method is especially bad when the winner is the supervisor and the loser is the subordinate.
Forcing can be a highly effective method of controlling conflict, and times exist when it has to be used. However, it is usually only a short-term resource because the original conflict will reemerge or similar ones will arise to create more problems.
Bargaining
Unlike forcing, bargaining seeks a solution through give and take. This compromising means that both sides move from their original position to one that is somewhere in between. Because both sides must be willing to give up something of value and to bargain in good faith, there is rarely a clear winner or loser. Therefore, the outcome is often less than completely satisfactory to both sides.
Bargaining is a more assertive mode than either avoidance or accommodating, but it is not as assertive as forcing. It is a relatively cooperative approach to conflict which causes it to be one of the most practical and often used methods of conflict resolution.
Problem Solving
Problem solving is the one mode of conflict resolvement with the greatest potential for achieving a permanent solution to conflict. Contrasted with avoidance, problem solving deals squarely with the issues. Contrasted with accommodating, problem solving focuses on the roots of the conflict although feelings are not ignored. Contrasted with forcing, no one is coerced into accepting an unwanted solution. Contrasted with bargaining, a solution is sought in which neither side feels it has to give up something important to get what it wants.
Problem solving brings the parties in conflict together to examine the situation, often with third-party help, and mutually to bring about the conditions for improving that situation.
Problem solving is often not used for the following reasons.
1. It is time consuming; the other modes of conflict resolvement are much quicker.
2. It requires a great deal of energy and commitment by the people involved.
3. Both parties must be attempting to achieve the same, or similar, goals and have a desire to see the problem solved. The opposing sides must believe that they can achieve a better solution through collaborating than through fighting and be willing to see the problem from the other side’s point of view.
Probably no one best method of conflict resolvement exists which would be applicable to every conflict. We should understand all the modes and know which would be the best to apply in a given conflict situation. The following list summarizes the conditions that would indicate the best use of each approach.
Conflict Resolution Approach
Context of Conflict
Avoidance (refraining from confrontation) works best when
¨ The potential damage of addressing the conflict outweighs the benefits of resolution.
¨ People need a chance to cool down emotionally.
¨ Others are in a better position to resolve the conflict.
¨ The problem will no doubt go away by itself.
¨ There's little chance you'll get your way anyway.
Accommodating (trying to appease combatants) works best when
¨ Preserving harmony is important.
¨ Conflicting personalities are the major source of problems.
¨ The issue itself cannot be solved.
¨ You care more about the other person than getting your own way.
Forcing (getting my way) works best when
¨ You know you’re right.
¨ You must protect yourself.
¨ A rule has to be enforced.
¨ Quick, decisive action is needed.
Bargaining (compromising) works best when
¨ The opposing sides do not share goals but are equal in power.
¨ Temporary settlements on complex issues are needed.
¨ Problem solving won’t work.
Problem solving (reaching a consensus) works best when
¨ Both sides bring concerns that are much too important to be compromised.
¨ Hard feelings must be worked through.
¨ A permanent solution is desired.
Developing Problem Solving Techniques
Solving problems is a challenge we face everyday. Problems are sometimes big and sometimes small. It is important to realize that no matter what the problem, it is better to solve the problem before it gets bigger and more difficult.
Problems are something with which everyone must deal. They can cause us to lose sleep, to do poorly on the job or in school, to be cranky with friends and family, and to have health problems. Not solving problems we have now may create a crisis situation later. A crisis is usually hard on our physical and mental health.
Solving problems means making decisions, and making decisions is often hard to do. We make decisions everyday--what clothes to wear, what classes to take, where to live, which friends to be with, and so on. However, some decisions are more complex and require a solution. For example: “What career should I choose?” “What should I do with my rebellious child?” “What am I going to do about moving out on my own?” To some people, these questions are overwhelming; to others, the solution may be simple. Remember that one person’s problem may not be a problem to someone else.
When solving problems and making decisions, it is important to avoid:
· Acting on feelings rather than logic and valid information. Sometimes the results of the solution are considered in great length, while the realities of the solution are often overlooked.
· Narrow vision. Narrow vision involves zeroing in to the point where the problem solver cannot be open-minded and does not consider other events that may affect the decision.
· Following poor advice. Friends or relatives who seem to be experts may in fact give you misleading advice resulting in a poor decision and unobtainable solution.
· Lack of direction and goals. When a person has no direction, it is difficult to make decisions and solve problems. A solution that seemed good at one point may in fact tend to be poor when circumstances change.
· Lack of thoroughness. Facts and figures needed to solve a problem must be carefully collected and considered. Every alternative should be thoroughly and patiently checked before a decision is made.
There are many reasons that cause people to make an incorrect decision:
· Fear is probably one of the biggest obstacles an individual has to overcome. Thinking of all the bad things that could result from a decision causes some people to hesitate and lose confidence in themselves.
· Not looking ahead will result in the problem reoccurring later. Always consider the future consequences of the solution.
· Seeing the problem as worse than it is. The more a person thinks about the problem, the larger it grows. Often the person talks himself or herself out of even beginning to deal with the problem.
· Not being able to identify the problem. Often the problem seems so complex that the problem-solver does not know where to begin.
The IDEA method for solving problems is a sure-fire method for reaching a solution to problems.
Step 1: Identify your problem.
What do I need to accomplish?
What should I be able to do when I finish this task?
Understanding the purpose of your activity is extremely important. As a sharp thinker once said, “If you don’t know where you are going, how will you know when you get there?” So, be sure to clarify your goals when setting up to begin a task.
Step 2: Design your solution.
What information is available to solve my work problem?
What materials do I need to solve my work problem?
Designing means planning. A person who applies technology to tasks doesn’t jump into the middle of the project but takes a look at the information and materials available to complete the task. After collecting the information sources and materials, it is necessary to select those which will be the most useful tools for the project and arrange them in an efficient way in order to complete the job.
Step 3: Examine your resources.
What do I already know about this situation that will help me?
What information sources will be the most helpful?
Within the information sources, what information is important because it will help me solve my problem?
Now that you have your resources together, it is time to use them. As a rule, instructions for installation or repair of equipment are written in a stepwise format—numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. This is called process or chronological order because the first step should occur before the second step, the second step before the third, and so on. Problems are usually solved more efficiently if you read and follow the instructions in a detailed and careful manner. No only will your future employer appreciate your attention to detail, but also, currently, while you are in school you will find that your instructors are favorably impressed by students who can follow and understand directions.
At the same time that you are looking over owner’s manuals, service manuals, or other information sources to complete your task, be sure to take note of the table of contents. The table of contents shows you the parts of the manual and helps you select only the information that will help you. For instance, to install a system you need only the setup information. To repair a problem, you may need only the troubleshooting guide.
Once the essential information for the project has been located, the worker who applies technology surveys not only information resources but also herself/himself. All individuals have a lifetime of problem-solving experience behind them. Look within yourself to see if you have knowledge gained from a previous task that you can use to guide you in the current activity. Use what you know to help you learn about what you don’t know.
Step 4: Assess your solution.
Did I accomplish my purpose?
Did the information help me solve my work problem? How did it help?
Upon completion of any project, it is essential to revisit your original goals. You need to be sure that you arrived at wherever you intended to go. It is also a good idea to survey your resources again. Did you have what you needed to complete your task on hand, or were you constantly having to stop your task to gather more materials or information? Use this experience to make you better prepared for your next challenge.
Here are a few more suggestions that will help in thinking more creatively and critically:
· Instead of sitting back and waiting for events to determine your actions, get involved up front. Shape the course of events by energetically pursuing the process of solving the problem.
· Think for yourself. Although others can help you, you are ultimately responsible for decisions affecting your life.
· Look at all sides. Consider all arguments, even those you may not want to hear. Remain open to new ideas and viewpoints that differ from your own. (Most great inventors and artists were considered screwballs because they had the courage and imagination to consider notions that wouldn’t have occurred to “normal” people.)
· Relax and let your subconscious mind work on the problem. Brilliant, creative people often seem absent-minded and idle, “lost in thought.” (Albert Einstein concentrated so deeply that he once actually forgot where he lived!) Purposeful daydreaming is a state in which the mind and body are alert but relaxed--the ideal setting for creative problem solving.
Maintaining Good Relationships with Supervisors and Co-Workers
The more you know about people and their needs, the better you get along with them. If you have no idea what makes another person tick, you will probably have a hard time relating to them. Four general points of which you need to be aware in order to get along with others are:
§ Everyone is unique.
§ Everyone wants to feel important.
§ People have many roles.
§ Needs affect actions.
Maintaining an awareness of everyone’s uniqueness will keep us from treating everybody in the same manner. For example, one supervisor may want to be called “Jim” and another “Mr. Baxter.” One co-worker might like to hear an occasional workplace joke but another might choose to refrain from such. To maintain good relationships, you must recognize, accept, and respect these differences.
While it is natural to feel that what is different from you is somehow not as good (or maybe even bad), you must realize that others have good reasons for their actions and preferences too. Respect their preferences. To do otherwise would make them feel unimportant. Remember how it feels when a sales clerk ignores you but waits on somebody else or when a boss talks down to you? Most of the time, you would want to get even with the offender, so always assume that others feel the same way when we don’t respect their opinions and different expectations.
We have to remember that supervisors and co-workers have other roles in life besides that they play for us. They are parents, sisters, sons, husbands, softball coaches, church members, and so on. If someone acts irritable or moody, perhaps it is because his child is sick or his personal life is undergoing some upheaval. Make allowances and understand that by supporting them in their other roles, you’ll improve your working relations with them.
All humans have needs. If one is thirsty, he takes a drink of water. If one is lonely, she seeks out a friend. Knowing that people are always trying to satisfy one need or another can help you maintain good human relations. You will not be quick to get angry at a person’s behavior if you understand why the person is behaving in some way. For example, someone who brags a lot may get very annoying. But if you remember that this person may simply be acting from a need for approval, you will be much more tolerant and might even encourage that person to resist the bragging behavior.
Good human relations skills take practice and patience, and all of us make mistakes sometimes. However, if we always stop to consider what other people want and need and not just react to an immediate, surface situation, we will have more success at maintaining good working relationships with our supervisors and our peers.
Following the Chain of Command
One of the most important human relations things you can do when you begin your job is to learn the organizational chart. Understand who your immediate supervisor is, who the supervisor of your supervisor is, who other department managers are, and so on. Keep your supervisor informed about what’s going on with your job. When you need permission to take time off, do not go over your supervisor’s head without his or her permission. Keep your boss informed whenever you want to talk to other management people about the possibility of making changes in the order of business.
References:Comex—The Communications Experience in Human Relations, Sussman/Deep, South-Western Publishing Co., 1984. Working at Human Relations, 2nd Ed., Fruehling/Oldham, Paradigm, 1990.
Because leadership skills are developed—you are not born with them—don’t forget to give your leadership skills a workout at every opportunity. This does not mean that you should go around telling people what to do, but be aware of opportunities to be a leader. For instance, when working with a group, try to get a cooperative effort from the group rather than have everyone pulling in a different direction. You can provide leadership by taking actions that would help the group complete its task and by helping the group members maintain good working relationships. Such practice will help you develop your own leadership style.
Understanding Conflict Management
Avoidance
Avoidance requires us to refrain from any action that might force a confrontation. People avoid conflict by refusing to take a stance, by physically leaving or by “tuning out.” When it is merely a way to hide from conflict, avoidance is an ineffective technique. Most problems do not disappear when they are ignored. An ostrich that buries its head in the sand when faced with unpleasant situations is practicing “avoidance.”
Despite the arguments against avoidance, it can be an effective strategy when you know the source(s) of the conflict will disappear or get better in a short period of time. Another situation might be one in which the opposing parties are so angry that feelings should not be bared at that time.
Accommodating
People accommodate when they attempt to make peace by either calming down the combatants or pointing out their common interests. They are then reacting to the emotions, not to the problem. The accommodating approach, like avoidance, does not cause the source of the conflict to go away—only to remain hidden for a while.
The quieting of festering feelings may seem to be a useful technique, and occasions arise in which accommodating should be used. However, someone who takes this action frequently is not resolving the real issues. Probably a more effective use of the accommodating method is to direct the attention of the competing individuals to the accomplishment of a goal that is important to both sides, if such a goal exists.
Forcing
Forcing takes place when a solution to conflict is imposed by any of the following: (1) the most powerful of the two sides, or (2) the supervisor. Forcers use authority, threats, and intimidation; they might also call for majority rule when they know they will win.
If one side in the conflict has more power than the other, the stronger side can simply intimidate the weaker. Two problems exist with this approach. First, the resolution is not guaranteed to be in the best interest of both parties or the company—only that it will be in the best interest of the stronger party. Second, the losing party will be frustrated by the results and may attempt to retaliate or sabotage the plan. This method is especially bad when the winner is the supervisor and the loser is the subordinate.
Forcing can be a highly effective method of controlling conflict, and times exist when it has to be used. However, it is usually only a short-term resource because the original conflict will reemerge or similar ones will arise to create more problems.
Bargaining
Unlike forcing, bargaining seeks a solution through give and take. This compromising means that both sides move from their original position to one that is somewhere in between. Because both sides must be willing to give up something of value and to bargain in good faith, there is rarely a clear winner or loser. Therefore, the outcome is often less than completely satisfactory to both sides.
Bargaining is a more assertive mode than either avoidance or accommodating, but it is not as assertive as forcing. It is a relatively cooperative approach to conflict which causes it to be one of the most practical and often used methods of conflict resolution.
Problem Solving
Problem solving is the one mode of conflict resolvement with the greatest potential for achieving a permanent solution to conflict. Contrasted with avoidance, problem solving deals squarely with the issues. Contrasted with accommodating, problem solving focuses on the roots of the conflict although feelings are not ignored. Contrasted with forcing, no one is coerced into accepting an unwanted solution. Contrasted with bargaining, a solution is sought in which neither side feels it has to give up something important to get what it wants.
Problem solving brings the parties in conflict together to examine the situation, often with third-party help, and mutually to bring about the conditions for improving that situation.
Problem solving is often not used for the following reasons.
1. It is time consuming; the other modes of conflict resolvement are much quicker.
2. It requires a great deal of energy and commitment by the people involved.
3. Both parties must be attempting to achieve the same, or similar, goals and have a desire to see the problem solved. The opposing sides must believe that they can achieve a better solution through collaborating than through fighting and be willing to see the problem from the other side’s point of view.
Probably no one best method of conflict resolvement exists which would be applicable to every conflict. We should understand all the modes and know which would be the best to apply in a given conflict situation. The following list summarizes the conditions that would indicate the best use of each approach.
Conflict Resolution Approach
Context of Conflict
Avoidance (refraining from confrontation) works best when
¨ The potential damage of addressing the conflict outweighs the benefits of resolution.
¨ People need a chance to cool down emotionally.
¨ Others are in a better position to resolve the conflict.
¨ The problem will no doubt go away by itself.
¨ There's little chance you'll get your way anyway.
Accommodating (trying to appease combatants) works best when
¨ Preserving harmony is important.
¨ Conflicting personalities are the major source of problems.
¨ The issue itself cannot be solved.
¨ You care more about the other person than getting your own way.
Forcing (getting my way) works best when
¨ You know you’re right.
¨ You must protect yourself.
¨ A rule has to be enforced.
¨ Quick, decisive action is needed.
Bargaining (compromising) works best when
¨ The opposing sides do not share goals but are equal in power.
¨ Temporary settlements on complex issues are needed.
¨ Problem solving won’t work.
Problem solving (reaching a consensus) works best when
¨ Both sides bring concerns that are much too important to be compromised.
¨ Hard feelings must be worked through.
¨ A permanent solution is desired.
Developing Problem Solving Techniques
Solving problems is a challenge we face everyday. Problems are sometimes big and sometimes small. It is important to realize that no matter what the problem, it is better to solve the problem before it gets bigger and more difficult.
Problems are something with which everyone must deal. They can cause us to lose sleep, to do poorly on the job or in school, to be cranky with friends and family, and to have health problems. Not solving problems we have now may create a crisis situation later. A crisis is usually hard on our physical and mental health.
Solving problems means making decisions, and making decisions is often hard to do. We make decisions everyday--what clothes to wear, what classes to take, where to live, which friends to be with, and so on. However, some decisions are more complex and require a solution. For example: “What career should I choose?” “What should I do with my rebellious child?” “What am I going to do about moving out on my own?” To some people, these questions are overwhelming; to others, the solution may be simple. Remember that one person’s problem may not be a problem to someone else.
When solving problems and making decisions, it is important to avoid:
· Acting on feelings rather than logic and valid information. Sometimes the results of the solution are considered in great length, while the realities of the solution are often overlooked.
· Narrow vision. Narrow vision involves zeroing in to the point where the problem solver cannot be open-minded and does not consider other events that may affect the decision.
· Following poor advice. Friends or relatives who seem to be experts may in fact give you misleading advice resulting in a poor decision and unobtainable solution.
· Lack of direction and goals. When a person has no direction, it is difficult to make decisions and solve problems. A solution that seemed good at one point may in fact tend to be poor when circumstances change.
· Lack of thoroughness. Facts and figures needed to solve a problem must be carefully collected and considered. Every alternative should be thoroughly and patiently checked before a decision is made.
There are many reasons that cause people to make an incorrect decision:
· Fear is probably one of the biggest obstacles an individual has to overcome. Thinking of all the bad things that could result from a decision causes some people to hesitate and lose confidence in themselves.
· Not looking ahead will result in the problem reoccurring later. Always consider the future consequences of the solution.
· Seeing the problem as worse than it is. The more a person thinks about the problem, the larger it grows. Often the person talks himself or herself out of even beginning to deal with the problem.
· Not being able to identify the problem. Often the problem seems so complex that the problem-solver does not know where to begin.
The IDEA method for solving problems is a sure-fire method for reaching a solution to problems.
Step 1: Identify your problem.
What do I need to accomplish?
What should I be able to do when I finish this task?
Understanding the purpose of your activity is extremely important. As a sharp thinker once said, “If you don’t know where you are going, how will you know when you get there?” So, be sure to clarify your goals when setting up to begin a task.
Step 2: Design your solution.
What information is available to solve my work problem?
What materials do I need to solve my work problem?
Designing means planning. A person who applies technology to tasks doesn’t jump into the middle of the project but takes a look at the information and materials available to complete the task. After collecting the information sources and materials, it is necessary to select those which will be the most useful tools for the project and arrange them in an efficient way in order to complete the job.
Step 3: Examine your resources.
What do I already know about this situation that will help me?
What information sources will be the most helpful?
Within the information sources, what information is important because it will help me solve my problem?
Now that you have your resources together, it is time to use them. As a rule, instructions for installation or repair of equipment are written in a stepwise format—numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. This is called process or chronological order because the first step should occur before the second step, the second step before the third, and so on. Problems are usually solved more efficiently if you read and follow the instructions in a detailed and careful manner. No only will your future employer appreciate your attention to detail, but also, currently, while you are in school you will find that your instructors are favorably impressed by students who can follow and understand directions.
At the same time that you are looking over owner’s manuals, service manuals, or other information sources to complete your task, be sure to take note of the table of contents. The table of contents shows you the parts of the manual and helps you select only the information that will help you. For instance, to install a system you need only the setup information. To repair a problem, you may need only the troubleshooting guide.
Once the essential information for the project has been located, the worker who applies technology surveys not only information resources but also herself/himself. All individuals have a lifetime of problem-solving experience behind them. Look within yourself to see if you have knowledge gained from a previous task that you can use to guide you in the current activity. Use what you know to help you learn about what you don’t know.
Step 4: Assess your solution.
Did I accomplish my purpose?
Did the information help me solve my work problem? How did it help?
Upon completion of any project, it is essential to revisit your original goals. You need to be sure that you arrived at wherever you intended to go. It is also a good idea to survey your resources again. Did you have what you needed to complete your task on hand, or were you constantly having to stop your task to gather more materials or information? Use this experience to make you better prepared for your next challenge.
Here are a few more suggestions that will help in thinking more creatively and critically:
· Instead of sitting back and waiting for events to determine your actions, get involved up front. Shape the course of events by energetically pursuing the process of solving the problem.
· Think for yourself. Although others can help you, you are ultimately responsible for decisions affecting your life.
· Look at all sides. Consider all arguments, even those you may not want to hear. Remain open to new ideas and viewpoints that differ from your own. (Most great inventors and artists were considered screwballs because they had the courage and imagination to consider notions that wouldn’t have occurred to “normal” people.)
· Relax and let your subconscious mind work on the problem. Brilliant, creative people often seem absent-minded and idle, “lost in thought.” (Albert Einstein concentrated so deeply that he once actually forgot where he lived!) Purposeful daydreaming is a state in which the mind and body are alert but relaxed--the ideal setting for creative problem solving.
Maintaining Good Relationships with Supervisors and Co-Workers
The more you know about people and their needs, the better you get along with them. If you have no idea what makes another person tick, you will probably have a hard time relating to them. Four general points of which you need to be aware in order to get along with others are:
§ Everyone is unique.
§ Everyone wants to feel important.
§ People have many roles.
§ Needs affect actions.
Maintaining an awareness of everyone’s uniqueness will keep us from treating everybody in the same manner. For example, one supervisor may want to be called “Jim” and another “Mr. Baxter.” One co-worker might like to hear an occasional workplace joke but another might choose to refrain from such. To maintain good relationships, you must recognize, accept, and respect these differences.
While it is natural to feel that what is different from you is somehow not as good (or maybe even bad), you must realize that others have good reasons for their actions and preferences too. Respect their preferences. To do otherwise would make them feel unimportant. Remember how it feels when a sales clerk ignores you but waits on somebody else or when a boss talks down to you? Most of the time, you would want to get even with the offender, so always assume that others feel the same way when we don’t respect their opinions and different expectations.
We have to remember that supervisors and co-workers have other roles in life besides that they play for us. They are parents, sisters, sons, husbands, softball coaches, church members, and so on. If someone acts irritable or moody, perhaps it is because his child is sick or his personal life is undergoing some upheaval. Make allowances and understand that by supporting them in their other roles, you’ll improve your working relations with them.
All humans have needs. If one is thirsty, he takes a drink of water. If one is lonely, she seeks out a friend. Knowing that people are always trying to satisfy one need or another can help you maintain good human relations. You will not be quick to get angry at a person’s behavior if you understand why the person is behaving in some way. For example, someone who brags a lot may get very annoying. But if you remember that this person may simply be acting from a need for approval, you will be much more tolerant and might even encourage that person to resist the bragging behavior.
Good human relations skills take practice and patience, and all of us make mistakes sometimes. However, if we always stop to consider what other people want and need and not just react to an immediate, surface situation, we will have more success at maintaining good working relationships with our supervisors and our peers.
Following the Chain of Command
One of the most important human relations things you can do when you begin your job is to learn the organizational chart. Understand who your immediate supervisor is, who the supervisor of your supervisor is, who other department managers are, and so on. Keep your supervisor informed about what’s going on with your job. When you need permission to take time off, do not go over your supervisor’s head without his or her permission. Keep your boss informed whenever you want to talk to other management people about the possibility of making changes in the order of business.
References:Comex—The Communications Experience in Human Relations, Sussman/Deep, South-Western Publishing Co., 1984. Working at Human Relations, 2nd Ed., Fruehling/Oldham, Paradigm, 1990.
Negotiation Videos Review
Negotiation, Part I, Introduction
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cqbgABAAA9M
Negotiation, Part II, Separate the people from the problem
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V1TNDrby8FE
Negotiation, Part III, Focus in Interests, Not Positions
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kUIPqa2LtbQ&mode=related&search=
Negotiation, Part IV, Invent options for mutual gain
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-HkR44Z-W_U&mode=related&search=
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cqbgABAAA9M
Negotiation, Part II, Separate the people from the problem
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V1TNDrby8FE
Negotiation, Part III, Focus in Interests, Not Positions
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kUIPqa2LtbQ&mode=related&search=
Negotiation, Part IV, Invent options for mutual gain
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-HkR44Z-W_U&mode=related&search=
Chapter 10 LC Leading Through Effective External Relations Summary
CHAPTER 10 LEADING THROUGH EFFECTIVE EXTERNAL RELATIONS
A positive public image or reputation affects a company’s ability to achieve all other measures of success. Reputation Institute says that the companies with the best corporate reputations outperform all others in terms of market share and share value.
Effective external relations require a sound communication strategy. These are the following steps to create a strategy for external audiences:
Clarify your purpose and strategy objectives.
Identify your major audiences or stakeholders:
Community, customers, union groups, retirees, analysis, board, company, etc.
Create, refine, and test your major messages:
Honest, clear, consistent, meaningful
Select, limit, and coach your spokesperson(s):
Legitimate, referent, expert, knowledge, position, title, charisma, rank
Establish the most effective media or forum.
Determine the best timing.
Monitor the results.
Everything a company does influences public opinion and reputation, therefore, every company should look carefully at building, a positive reputation. In Reputation: Realizing Value from the Corporate Image, Charles Fombrun identifies six ways companies can build and maintain a positive corporate image:
Design campaigns to promote the company as a whole.
Carry out ambitions programs to champion product quality and customer service.
Maintain systems to screen employee activities for reputation side effects.
Demonstrate sensitivity to the environment.
Hire internal communication staff and retain public relations firms.
Demonstrate “corporate citizenship”
This list reveals the importance of being proactive and comprehensive in fostering corporate reputation. One mistake in any of these areas can cause repercussions from which a company may never recover.
The mistakes or missteps that tarnish a company’s reputation are most often uncovered and publicized by the news media. To increase chances for favorable treatment, it is important for a company to establish a positive relationship with the media and for every senior manager to know how to work effectively with them.
Since all major newspapers and most TV networks provide coverage of major corporations and are definitely interested in sensational news from smaller companies, every company needs to recognize the importance of the media and take the local media representatives and learn a little about their needs and interests. In addition, companies need to understand the value of positive public relations and realize that establishing a relationship with the media,, either directly or through a public relations firm, can open the door to a tremendous amount of “free” publicity.
Interactions with the media can allow a company to reach a large and globally dispersed audience, present their point of view proactively, and establish a positive public ethos.
Any leader or high-level manager should receive training and, ideally, specific coaching in preparation for an encounter with the media. The training should include the following at a minimum, preparation for the interview, performance during the interview, and steps to take afterward.
Preparation
Performance during the Interview
Steps to Take after the Interview
Although establishing positive relationships with external audiences prior to a crisis will help in all but the most extreme situations, no amount of goodwill can guarantee the positive coverage that is necessary to avoid permanent damage to a company’s reputation.
The following guidelines will help companies respond appropriately in most crisis situations:
Develop a general crisis communication plan and communicate it.
Once the crisis occurs, respond quickly.
Make sure you have the right people ready to respond and that they all respond with the same message.
Put yourself in the shoes of your audience
Do not overlook the value of the Web.
Revisit your crisis communication plan frequently.
Build in a way to monitor the coverage.
Perform a post-crisis evaluation.
A positive public image or reputation affects a company’s ability to achieve all other measures of success. Reputation Institute says that the companies with the best corporate reputations outperform all others in terms of market share and share value.
Effective external relations require a sound communication strategy. These are the following steps to create a strategy for external audiences:
Clarify your purpose and strategy objectives.
Identify your major audiences or stakeholders:
Community, customers, union groups, retirees, analysis, board, company, etc.
Create, refine, and test your major messages:
Honest, clear, consistent, meaningful
Select, limit, and coach your spokesperson(s):
Legitimate, referent, expert, knowledge, position, title, charisma, rank
Establish the most effective media or forum.
Determine the best timing.
Monitor the results.
Everything a company does influences public opinion and reputation, therefore, every company should look carefully at building, a positive reputation. In Reputation: Realizing Value from the Corporate Image, Charles Fombrun identifies six ways companies can build and maintain a positive corporate image:
Design campaigns to promote the company as a whole.
Carry out ambitions programs to champion product quality and customer service.
Maintain systems to screen employee activities for reputation side effects.
Demonstrate sensitivity to the environment.
Hire internal communication staff and retain public relations firms.
Demonstrate “corporate citizenship”
This list reveals the importance of being proactive and comprehensive in fostering corporate reputation. One mistake in any of these areas can cause repercussions from which a company may never recover.
The mistakes or missteps that tarnish a company’s reputation are most often uncovered and publicized by the news media. To increase chances for favorable treatment, it is important for a company to establish a positive relationship with the media and for every senior manager to know how to work effectively with them.
Since all major newspapers and most TV networks provide coverage of major corporations and are definitely interested in sensational news from smaller companies, every company needs to recognize the importance of the media and take the local media representatives and learn a little about their needs and interests. In addition, companies need to understand the value of positive public relations and realize that establishing a relationship with the media,, either directly or through a public relations firm, can open the door to a tremendous amount of “free” publicity.
Interactions with the media can allow a company to reach a large and globally dispersed audience, present their point of view proactively, and establish a positive public ethos.
Any leader or high-level manager should receive training and, ideally, specific coaching in preparation for an encounter with the media. The training should include the following at a minimum, preparation for the interview, performance during the interview, and steps to take afterward.
Preparation
Performance during the Interview
Steps to Take after the Interview
Although establishing positive relationships with external audiences prior to a crisis will help in all but the most extreme situations, no amount of goodwill can guarantee the positive coverage that is necessary to avoid permanent damage to a company’s reputation.
The following guidelines will help companies respond appropriately in most crisis situations:
Develop a general crisis communication plan and communicate it.
Once the crisis occurs, respond quickly.
Make sure you have the right people ready to respond and that they all respond with the same message.
Put yourself in the shoes of your audience
Do not overlook the value of the Web.
Revisit your crisis communication plan frequently.
Build in a way to monitor the coverage.
Perform a post-crisis evaluation.
Chapter 9 LC Estabishing Leadership Through Strategic Internal Communication Summary
One of the major responsibilities of an organizational leader is communication with employees. By communicating effectively with employees, however, CEOs are not simply, creating ambassadors of goodwill for their companies, they are providing direction, establishing a positive and productive working environment, and influencing their bottom lines.
For employee communication to play a strategic role in an organization, the leader must realize its importance in accomplishing the company’s strategic objectives and performance goals and integrate it into the company’s overall strategy and business processes. The communication objectives would be (1) to ensure all business units receive the same corporate message that joint decision making is now a priority and (2) to establish forums (meetings if appropriate) for the joint decision making to occur.
Best ways to accomplish the following basic employee communication objectives:
Educate employees in the company vision and strategic goals.
Motivate employee support for the company’s strategy.
Encourage higher performance and discretionary effort.
Limit misunderstandings and rumors that may damage productivity.
Align employees behind the company’s performance objectives and position them to help achieve them.
To accomplish these goals, your messages need to be clear, consistent, and targeted. Effective employee communication is both the product—the messages that the organization wants to transfer—and the process—the conduit for transferring the messages.
To ensure your internal communication is comprehensive, you will want to use an analytical approach to developing a communication strategy for any of your important communication.
Effective internal communication consists of the following:
Supportive management
Targeted messages
Effective media/forum
Well-positioned staff
Ongoing assessment
Missions, visions, values, and guiding principles make up one category of major strategic messages that most organizations convey to their employees. Your ability to establish and communicate the mission and the vision effectively strengthens your position in leading the organization.
Effective mission and vision statements are important to a company for the following reasons:
Inspire individual action, determine behavior, and fuel motivation.
Establish a firm foundation of goals, standards, and objectives to guide corporate planners and managers.
Satisfy both the company’s need for efficiency and the employees’ need for group identity.
Provide direction, which is particularly important in times of change, to keep everyone moving toward the same goals.
Missions
A mission is a statement of the reason a company exists that is intended primarily for internal use. It should ensure that employees understand the company’s purpose by defining a company’s basic business. It should establish a single, noble purpose and an enduring reality.
Visions
A vision statement establishes the company’s aspirations. It describes an inspiring new reality, achievable in a well-understood and reasonable time frame.
To test a mission, the leaders should look for the following characteristics:
Inspirational and suggestive of excellence
Clear, making sense in the marketplace
Stable but flexible enough to last with only incremental changes
Beacons and controls when all else is up for grabs
Aimed at empowering employees first, customers second
To test the vision, the organizational leaders should ask if it does the following:
Suggests goals and provides a direction
Inspires and prepares for the future but honors the past
Applies specifically to the company, providing details that are actionable
The following steps in a leader-led, interactive, employee-involved approach to building a mission and a vision:
Create Initial Draft
Clarify the Meaning
Tell the World in 25 Words or Less What You Are and What You Want to Become
Develop the Strategic Objectives to Make the Vision Specific and Actionable
Hold Cascading Meetings with Employees to Test the Mission and the Vision
The greatest difficulty leaders face in bringing about to change involves the people. To achieve successful change, leaders must confront the challenges of reaching the employees through effective leadership communication before, during, and after any major, companywide programs. Without effective employee communication and a rigorous approach to the leadership communication, a change program has little chance to succeed.
The magnitude of the proposed organizational changes and the effectiveness of the company’s current internal communication practices will determine how comprehensive the communication program needs to be and where you should start, you should assess how effective our company’s current internal communication practices are and decide if they are strong enough to support major change.
A high level action plan needs a very detailed work plan to specify all actions, responsibilities, and deadlines.
· Phase 1: Design Change Communication Strategy and Plan
· Phase 2:Launch Change Communication and Ensure Employee Understanding
· Phase 3: Monitor Results and Make Adjustments
For employee communication to play a strategic role in an organization, the leader must realize its importance in accomplishing the company’s strategic objectives and performance goals and integrate it into the company’s overall strategy and business processes. The communication objectives would be (1) to ensure all business units receive the same corporate message that joint decision making is now a priority and (2) to establish forums (meetings if appropriate) for the joint decision making to occur.
Best ways to accomplish the following basic employee communication objectives:
Educate employees in the company vision and strategic goals.
Motivate employee support for the company’s strategy.
Encourage higher performance and discretionary effort.
Limit misunderstandings and rumors that may damage productivity.
Align employees behind the company’s performance objectives and position them to help achieve them.
To accomplish these goals, your messages need to be clear, consistent, and targeted. Effective employee communication is both the product—the messages that the organization wants to transfer—and the process—the conduit for transferring the messages.
To ensure your internal communication is comprehensive, you will want to use an analytical approach to developing a communication strategy for any of your important communication.
Effective internal communication consists of the following:
Supportive management
Targeted messages
Effective media/forum
Well-positioned staff
Ongoing assessment
Missions, visions, values, and guiding principles make up one category of major strategic messages that most organizations convey to their employees. Your ability to establish and communicate the mission and the vision effectively strengthens your position in leading the organization.
Effective mission and vision statements are important to a company for the following reasons:
Inspire individual action, determine behavior, and fuel motivation.
Establish a firm foundation of goals, standards, and objectives to guide corporate planners and managers.
Satisfy both the company’s need for efficiency and the employees’ need for group identity.
Provide direction, which is particularly important in times of change, to keep everyone moving toward the same goals.
Missions
A mission is a statement of the reason a company exists that is intended primarily for internal use. It should ensure that employees understand the company’s purpose by defining a company’s basic business. It should establish a single, noble purpose and an enduring reality.
Visions
A vision statement establishes the company’s aspirations. It describes an inspiring new reality, achievable in a well-understood and reasonable time frame.
To test a mission, the leaders should look for the following characteristics:
Inspirational and suggestive of excellence
Clear, making sense in the marketplace
Stable but flexible enough to last with only incremental changes
Beacons and controls when all else is up for grabs
Aimed at empowering employees first, customers second
To test the vision, the organizational leaders should ask if it does the following:
Suggests goals and provides a direction
Inspires and prepares for the future but honors the past
Applies specifically to the company, providing details that are actionable
The following steps in a leader-led, interactive, employee-involved approach to building a mission and a vision:
Create Initial Draft
Clarify the Meaning
Tell the World in 25 Words or Less What You Are and What You Want to Become
Develop the Strategic Objectives to Make the Vision Specific and Actionable
Hold Cascading Meetings with Employees to Test the Mission and the Vision
The greatest difficulty leaders face in bringing about to change involves the people. To achieve successful change, leaders must confront the challenges of reaching the employees through effective leadership communication before, during, and after any major, companywide programs. Without effective employee communication and a rigorous approach to the leadership communication, a change program has little chance to succeed.
The magnitude of the proposed organizational changes and the effectiveness of the company’s current internal communication practices will determine how comprehensive the communication program needs to be and where you should start, you should assess how effective our company’s current internal communication practices are and decide if they are strong enough to support major change.
A high level action plan needs a very detailed work plan to specify all actions, responsibilities, and deadlines.
· Phase 1: Design Change Communication Strategy and Plan
· Phase 2:Launch Change Communication and Ensure Employee Understanding
· Phase 3: Monitor Results and Make Adjustments
Chapter 8 LC Building and Leading High-Performing Summary
Building an effective team raises organizational and individual leadership issues. In deciding to use teams across your company, you will want to look closely at the company culture and compensation structure to see if they both support teamwork.
Deciding to form a team is a process very similar to deciding to call a meeting. Both meetings and teams can alienate participants if they are not clearly the best approach.
High-performing individuals working together in a team with a clear objective and the commitment to achieve it can be very effective team despite the environment. Having a supportive environment will simply make your role in leading and managing teams easier.
Once you have decided that a team is the best answer, you will need to look closely at how you will form that team. Companies often decide who should be on teams based on functional responsibilities, for instance. If you have the freedom to select the members, however, you will find Katzenbach and Smith’s team basics framework, the apex topics—performance results, personal growth, and collective work products—represent the outcome of the work of the team.
The other items are the characteristics of what Katzenbach and Smith consider a “real” team:
Complementary skills (problem solving, technical/functional, interpersonal)
Accountability (mutual, individual, and small number of people)
Commitment (specific goals, common approach, meaningful purpose)
Once you have told the selected team members that they are on your team, you should schedule a launch or kick-off meeting. Teams tend to begin their work more effectively if you take the time to hold an official launch. Having a launch, allows you to address many of the team work process steps. Although most teams will probably want to jump right into the work without spending the necessary time on process issues, leading them through development of the purpose, goals, and approach (the commitment side of the team basics framework) will help your team work more efficiently and effectively. The primary causes of conflict in a team are poorly defined goals and purposes and lack of clarity about the approach to the work and problem solving.
One of the first steps for your team will be to create a team charter or contract. A charter usually consists of the following:
Project purpose/goals.
Team member roles and responsibilities.
Ground rules.
Communication protocol.
For a team project of any complexity or length, an action plan of overall phases is useful and a specific work plan of all action items and end products with responsibilities and time lines is essential. Although any plan has to be updated frequently as the project unfolds, creating one at the beginning of the project is necessary for all team members to know exactly what needs to be done, by whom, and by when. It helps avoid duplication of effort, ensures all needed activities are included, and allocates adequate time for the planned actions.
A team’s performance will depend on the team being able to deliver the results of its work. That usually means delivering a presentation, a report, or both. These tasks are often one of the major communication challenges that teams face.
You will want to include all tasks to create and complete your document or presentation in the action steps of your work plan. Teams typically underestimate the time it will take to create and complete a document or presentation as a team. They make this mistake because they do not push far enough into the details of document or presentation creation and completion.
Listing all the steps will ensure the team allows enough time for the creation and completion of their document or presentation. You want to plan for this work just as you do for the research and analysis. Otherwise, you risk not allowing enough time, and the resulting rush may prevent you from delivering the high-quality end product that is characteristic of a high-performing team.
Team members want to learn from the experiences of being on the team, which calls for reflecting on the team work process. Teams working together over an extended period of time should build in periodic process checks. Doing so allows them to determine which processes are working well and which may need to be changed. They should revisit their roles and responsibilities, ground rules, and communication protocol. The team leader will also want to provide feedback on the performance of individual members and ask for feedback on his or her performance as a team leader.
Although team members will get to know each other through day-to-day interactions while working together, the team members can shorten the learning curve by discussing the following information at the first team meeting:
Position and responsibilities
Team experiences
Expectations
Personality
Cultural differences
Despite all of the best planning and time spent getting to know each other, teams will likely experience conflict. Some of it will be useful and some not, but the odds are that it will occur.
Internal team conflict will usually be one of the four types:
Analytical (team’s constructive disagreement over a project issue or problem).
Task (goal, work process, deliverables).
Interpersonal (personality, diversity, communication styles).
Roles (leadership, responsibilities, power struggles).
Most teams will use one of the following three approaches to managing conflict:
One on one: Individuals involved work it out between themselves.
Facilitation: Individuals involved work with a facilitator (mediator)
Team: Individuals involved discussed it with the entire team
More and more companies are using virtual teams to connect their personnel in offices around the globe. In fact, research has shown that today “most teamwork is virtual” with it being rare “to find all team members located in one place” in organizations.
Virtual teams are teams whose members are geographically dispersed and rely primarily on technology (telephone, computer, video, or some combination) for communication and to accomplish their work as a team.
Virtual teams provide several advantages for companies today: lowering travel and facility costs, reducing project schedules, allowing the leveraging of expertise and vertical integration, improving efficiency, and positioning to compete globally.
On the other hand, virtual teams also provide challenges, particularly in communications:
Lost in context of communication
Cultural differences
Difficulties in sharing and discussing complex information
Connection and trust difficult to build in a virtual environment
A virtual team needs to have even more structure than a traditional team and must spend even more time on basic good team practices, such as having a clear purpose and objectives, establishing ground rules, creating work plans, and developing team communication protocols.
According to an article in The McKinsey Quaterly, a virtual team needs the following to be successful: (1) shared beliefs, (2) a “storehouse of credibility and trust,” and (3) a shared work space.
The shared beliefs come from the team discussing fundamental questions about how they plan to approach the problems, examining areas of potential conflict, and taking time to resolve any differences. To build a storehouse of credibility and trust, each team member needs to “pay careful attention to the way others perceive them.” In addition, they need to “deliver on their promises, and do so on time; consider other people’s schedules; deal straightforwardly with colleagues; and respond promptly to emails and voicemails.” Creating a work space means that they need to establish a virtual team room through the technology available to them. It should allow them to communicate easily and to share in developing ideas and documents.
Deciding to form a team is a process very similar to deciding to call a meeting. Both meetings and teams can alienate participants if they are not clearly the best approach.
High-performing individuals working together in a team with a clear objective and the commitment to achieve it can be very effective team despite the environment. Having a supportive environment will simply make your role in leading and managing teams easier.
Once you have decided that a team is the best answer, you will need to look closely at how you will form that team. Companies often decide who should be on teams based on functional responsibilities, for instance. If you have the freedom to select the members, however, you will find Katzenbach and Smith’s team basics framework, the apex topics—performance results, personal growth, and collective work products—represent the outcome of the work of the team.
The other items are the characteristics of what Katzenbach and Smith consider a “real” team:
Complementary skills (problem solving, technical/functional, interpersonal)
Accountability (mutual, individual, and small number of people)
Commitment (specific goals, common approach, meaningful purpose)
Once you have told the selected team members that they are on your team, you should schedule a launch or kick-off meeting. Teams tend to begin their work more effectively if you take the time to hold an official launch. Having a launch, allows you to address many of the team work process steps. Although most teams will probably want to jump right into the work without spending the necessary time on process issues, leading them through development of the purpose, goals, and approach (the commitment side of the team basics framework) will help your team work more efficiently and effectively. The primary causes of conflict in a team are poorly defined goals and purposes and lack of clarity about the approach to the work and problem solving.
One of the first steps for your team will be to create a team charter or contract. A charter usually consists of the following:
Project purpose/goals.
Team member roles and responsibilities.
Ground rules.
Communication protocol.
For a team project of any complexity or length, an action plan of overall phases is useful and a specific work plan of all action items and end products with responsibilities and time lines is essential. Although any plan has to be updated frequently as the project unfolds, creating one at the beginning of the project is necessary for all team members to know exactly what needs to be done, by whom, and by when. It helps avoid duplication of effort, ensures all needed activities are included, and allocates adequate time for the planned actions.
A team’s performance will depend on the team being able to deliver the results of its work. That usually means delivering a presentation, a report, or both. These tasks are often one of the major communication challenges that teams face.
You will want to include all tasks to create and complete your document or presentation in the action steps of your work plan. Teams typically underestimate the time it will take to create and complete a document or presentation as a team. They make this mistake because they do not push far enough into the details of document or presentation creation and completion.
Listing all the steps will ensure the team allows enough time for the creation and completion of their document or presentation. You want to plan for this work just as you do for the research and analysis. Otherwise, you risk not allowing enough time, and the resulting rush may prevent you from delivering the high-quality end product that is characteristic of a high-performing team.
Team members want to learn from the experiences of being on the team, which calls for reflecting on the team work process. Teams working together over an extended period of time should build in periodic process checks. Doing so allows them to determine which processes are working well and which may need to be changed. They should revisit their roles and responsibilities, ground rules, and communication protocol. The team leader will also want to provide feedback on the performance of individual members and ask for feedback on his or her performance as a team leader.
Although team members will get to know each other through day-to-day interactions while working together, the team members can shorten the learning curve by discussing the following information at the first team meeting:
Position and responsibilities
Team experiences
Expectations
Personality
Cultural differences
Despite all of the best planning and time spent getting to know each other, teams will likely experience conflict. Some of it will be useful and some not, but the odds are that it will occur.
Internal team conflict will usually be one of the four types:
Analytical (team’s constructive disagreement over a project issue or problem).
Task (goal, work process, deliverables).
Interpersonal (personality, diversity, communication styles).
Roles (leadership, responsibilities, power struggles).
Most teams will use one of the following three approaches to managing conflict:
One on one: Individuals involved work it out between themselves.
Facilitation: Individuals involved work with a facilitator (mediator)
Team: Individuals involved discussed it with the entire team
More and more companies are using virtual teams to connect their personnel in offices around the globe. In fact, research has shown that today “most teamwork is virtual” with it being rare “to find all team members located in one place” in organizations.
Virtual teams are teams whose members are geographically dispersed and rely primarily on technology (telephone, computer, video, or some combination) for communication and to accomplish their work as a team.
Virtual teams provide several advantages for companies today: lowering travel and facility costs, reducing project schedules, allowing the leveraging of expertise and vertical integration, improving efficiency, and positioning to compete globally.
On the other hand, virtual teams also provide challenges, particularly in communications:
Lost in context of communication
Cultural differences
Difficulties in sharing and discussing complex information
Connection and trust difficult to build in a virtual environment
A virtual team needs to have even more structure than a traditional team and must spend even more time on basic good team practices, such as having a clear purpose and objectives, establishing ground rules, creating work plans, and developing team communication protocols.
According to an article in The McKinsey Quaterly, a virtual team needs the following to be successful: (1) shared beliefs, (2) a “storehouse of credibility and trust,” and (3) a shared work space.
The shared beliefs come from the team discussing fundamental questions about how they plan to approach the problems, examining areas of potential conflict, and taking time to resolve any differences. To build a storehouse of credibility and trust, each team member needs to “pay careful attention to the way others perceive them.” In addition, they need to “deliver on their promises, and do so on time; consider other people’s schedules; deal straightforwardly with colleagues; and respond promptly to emails and voicemails.” Creating a work space means that they need to establish a virtual team room through the technology available to them. It should allow them to communicate easily and to share in developing ideas and documents.
Chapter 7 LC Leading Productive Management Meetings Summary
The Seven Deadly Sins of Meetings:
-People don’t take meetings seriously.
-Meetings are too long.
-People wander off the topic.
-Nothing happens once the meeting ends.
-People don’t tell the truth.
-Meetings are always missing important information, so they postpone critical decisions.
-Meetings never get better.
Communication purpose and strategy should come first in planning meetings, as in all communication situations. You need to define a clear purpose and analyze your audience to determine whether a meeting is the best forum for what you want to accomplish. Use the following questions to direct you in deciding to meet or not:
What is the purpose? What do I hope to accomplish?
Will a meeting accomplish that purpose more efficiently? More effectively?
Can I describe exactly the outcome I am seeking from the meeting?
Is our group more productive when we meet?
Leaders often have assistants to handle the details associated with their meetings but you will need to decide about the purpose, outcomes, agenda, setting, timing, and materials. To ensure your meetings are productive, you must conduct the necessary planning by answering the following questions:
What is the purpose and expected outcome?
What should be included on the agenda?
Who should attend?
What is the best setting?
What is the best timing?
What information will now need for the meeting?
To ensure a productive meeting, you will want to manage expectations by communicating to your attendees before or just after the meeting starts what the decision-making procedure will be. Your approach may be so pervasive and well understood that you will not need to bring up the subject in a meeting; however, you may want to use different approaches for different types of meetings or problems, so you should make your approach clear for each meeting.
You should define the meeting roles and responsibilities before or after the meeting starts. The roles recommended for most meetings are as follows:
Leader
Facilitate
Note taker
Timekeeper
Example Ground Rules for Virtual Meetings
Introduce yourself when you join the meeting
State your name prior to your comments throughout the call
Avoid any side conversations since not all participants can hear them
Keep the speakerphone close to the person who is talking to avoid background noise
Avoid tapping pens or shuffling papers since these sounds may be exaggerated on the other end.
Common analytical tools that work well in many different types of problem-solving meetings are as follows:
Brainstorming
Ranking or rating
Sorting by category (logical grouping)
Edward de Bono’s Six Thinking Hats.
Opposition Analysis
Decision trees
From/to analysis
Force-field analysis
The matrix
Frameworks
MANAGING MEETING PROBLEMS AND CONFLICT
Problem
-Confused Objectives and Expectations
-Unclear Roles and Responsibilities
-Confusion between Process and Content
-Drifting off Topic
-Data Confusion or Overload
-Repetition and Wheel Spinning
-Time Violations
Management Approach
-Create an agenda that includes objectives as well as end products.
-Send agenda out ahead of time and review it at the beginning of the meeting.
-Communicate roles and responsibilities with agenda or establish at the beginning of the meeting.
-Separate the leader and the facilitator role.
-Call time-outs for process checks as soon as confusion is expressed.
-Stop and review meeting objectives. If digression continues, suggest
Discussion continue after meeting
-Topic be placed on agenda for next meeting
-Topic be tabled, stored for future (write topic down for all to see and make sure it is discussed at end of meeting if time allows or at an agreed future date)
-Control handouts to ensure all have the same version.
-Create simplified data packs specific to meeting
-Exclude any data not directly relevant to objectives
-Control the discussion by reminding attendees of objectives
-Start on time. Allowing delays at the beginning of meetings cuts efficiency and sends the message that the leader is flexible on time
-Have a timekeeper. If time limits are repeatedly violated, reevaluate agenda topics and time limits and build in cushion time
When the common meeting problems turn into direct conflict, perhaps because of personality or factions within the group, facilitators may need to be more aggressive in their tactics. One popular technique often used by negotiators calls on the individuals involved in the conflict to apply different levels of assertiveness and cooperation. They can approach the problem by competing, collaborating, avoiding, or accommodating.
None of these modes seem the best for the situation, the facilitator may want to try one of the following methods of conflict management to calm the situation so that the meeting can continue:
Turn the question to the group.
Use the is/is not approach or a pro/con format.
Try listing points of agreement and disagreement.
Attempt to get an underlying assumption.
Shift the discussions to the facts (put on the white hat).
ENSURING MEETING LEAD TO ACTION
Assign specific tasks to specific people.
Review all actions and responsibilities at the end of the meeting
Provide a meeting summary with assigned deliverables included.
Follow up on action items in a reasonable time.
Chapter 6 LC Delivering Emotional Intelligence and Cultural Literacy to Strengthen Leadership Communication Summary
Leaders need strong interpersonal skills and an understanding of and appreciation for cultural diversity. Without these skills, leaders cannot communicate with and manage others effectively. Interpersonal skills have gained recent recognition among business leaders under the name of “emotional intelligence.” Emotional intelligence (EI) is the capacity to understand your own emotions and those of other people.
The company’s culture reflects the emotional intelligence (or lack) of the company leaders, and the company leaders reveal that emotional intelligence through their communication ability and style.
Reuven Bar-On, who developed the concept of emotional quotient in 1988, provides a technical definition of emotional intelligence. Emotional quotient (or intelligence) is emotional and social knowledge and the ability to:
Be aware of, understand, and express yourself.
Be aware of, understand, and relate to others.
Deal with strong emotions, and control your impulses.
Adapt to change and to solve problems of a personal or a social nature.
In Primal Leadership, Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee argue that leadership styles fall into six broad categories: (1) visionary, (2) coaching, (3) affiliative, (4) democratic, (5) pacesetting, and (6) commanding. These last two may have negative impact to the organization.
Personal Competence: These capabilities determine how we manage ourselves
Self-Awareness
Self-Management
Social Competence: These capabilities determine how we manage relationships.
Social Awareness
Relationship Management
The first-step toward emotional intelligence is self-awareness. What is important to realize is that you can develop your emotional intelligence and by doing so improve your leadership communication ability, but you need to understand your strengths and weaknesses first.
Psychological testing can help you gain insight into your behavior and how you interact with others, and also how others interact with you. You can benefit from knowing yourself better and identifying characteristics that may hinder your ability to interact effectively with others. With this knowledge, you can work toward modifying unproductive behaviors and perhaps, at a minimum, understand better why others respond to you as they do.
The MBTI consists of four dichotomies in 16 combinations. The dichotomies are as follows:
· Introvert (1) vs. Extravert (E)—indicates how are energized
· Sensing (S) vs. Intuitive (N)—suggests how you interpret or understand the world.
· Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F)—shows how you make decisions.
· Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P)—suggests your approach to life and work.
Many assessments are available on the Web, although some require a fee and psychologists to contact you with the results. You can take MBTI for free online, and you receive your score and a report immediately. It is particular useful in relating the test to the workplace and in explaining how different types handle different jobs and team situations.
This approach will allow you: (1) to assess your strengths and weaknesses, (2) to obtain feedback from others on your strengths and weaknesses, (3) to establish your goals, (5) to map out a plan to achieve those goals.
Categories of Nonverbal Communication
Appearance
Paralanguage
Kinesics
Occulesics
Proxemics
Facial expressions
Olfactics
Chronomics
The Following Suggestions to Improve Your Nonverbal Communication Skills
Learn as much as possible about any culture in which you will be interacting.
Do not judge someone’s actions out of context or leave the actions unexplored when important to you or the organization.
Develop your understanding or sensitivity to nonverbal cues.
Assess your own use of nonverbal communication.
Leaving: “listening out of any discussion of communication” means leaving out at least 40 to percent of the communication process. Good listening skills are essential, and the lack of them hinders many people’s careers. If you are not sure whether you are a good listener, you should take an inventory of your listening habits, either by making a list on your own, asking someone you trust to give you feedback, or taking a listening assessment. A little self-awareness will help you realize if improvement is needed and how much.
The mentor and the protégé must establish together an approach for working with each other and, if appropriate, set up a development plan with agreed upon objectives. They will also need to communicate regularly, but the protégé should be mindful of the mentor’s time commitments and be realistic in his or her expectations. Mentors, on the other hand, owe it to protégés not to commit to more than they can deliver and to establish boundaries.
The following steps should work effectively when providing feedback in most business situations:
Be well prepared for the feedback session.
Create a receptive environment.
Assume a comfortable demeanor.
Start by setting the context for the meeting.
Move quickly into your main objectives, which should not be so numerous they overwhelm.
Ensure throughout that the receiver understands your points
Be very specific about the actions you expect the receiver to undertake as a result of this feedback session and the timing for completing them.
Realizing the value of cultural differences is a key component of emotional intelligence. Only by understanding and appreciating cultural diversity can you know how best to communicate with all of the different audiences that form the complexion of most of the world’s corporation today.
Culture is learned and shared equally by others of the same culture whereas personality is highly individual and influenced by our genes and our environment.
Cultures and professions can be arrayed on a spectrum ranging from low context to high context. Low context cultures depend relatively little on existing relationships for meaning in communication and rely instead on explicit verbal messages. High context cultures rely more extensively on relationships to understand meaning and place less importance on verbal messages.
The importance of context in a culture, high or low, influences how individuals approach exchanges of information and determines how messages flow between people and levels of organization.
Time is a commodity and is meant to be measured and managed, conserved or wasted, spent wisely or foolishly. Events are sequentially, one at a time, and this schedule takes precedence over relationships and people.
Language has been described as the “central influence on culture and one of the most highly changed symbols of a culture or a nation. All cultural levels have language differences: industries, professions, functions, and even genders.
Cultures differ tremendously in how they view power and equality. Some believe in strict hierarchies with clear distinctions between levels and formalized respect for people at the higher levels of an organization. In other words, for some cultures, titles and position matter more than they do for other cultures.
The company’s culture reflects the emotional intelligence (or lack) of the company leaders, and the company leaders reveal that emotional intelligence through their communication ability and style.
Reuven Bar-On, who developed the concept of emotional quotient in 1988, provides a technical definition of emotional intelligence. Emotional quotient (or intelligence) is emotional and social knowledge and the ability to:
Be aware of, understand, and express yourself.
Be aware of, understand, and relate to others.
Deal with strong emotions, and control your impulses.
Adapt to change and to solve problems of a personal or a social nature.
In Primal Leadership, Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee argue that leadership styles fall into six broad categories: (1) visionary, (2) coaching, (3) affiliative, (4) democratic, (5) pacesetting, and (6) commanding. These last two may have negative impact to the organization.
Personal Competence: These capabilities determine how we manage ourselves
Self-Awareness
Self-Management
Social Competence: These capabilities determine how we manage relationships.
Social Awareness
Relationship Management
The first-step toward emotional intelligence is self-awareness. What is important to realize is that you can develop your emotional intelligence and by doing so improve your leadership communication ability, but you need to understand your strengths and weaknesses first.
Psychological testing can help you gain insight into your behavior and how you interact with others, and also how others interact with you. You can benefit from knowing yourself better and identifying characteristics that may hinder your ability to interact effectively with others. With this knowledge, you can work toward modifying unproductive behaviors and perhaps, at a minimum, understand better why others respond to you as they do.
The MBTI consists of four dichotomies in 16 combinations. The dichotomies are as follows:
· Introvert (1) vs. Extravert (E)—indicates how are energized
· Sensing (S) vs. Intuitive (N)—suggests how you interpret or understand the world.
· Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F)—shows how you make decisions.
· Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P)—suggests your approach to life and work.
Many assessments are available on the Web, although some require a fee and psychologists to contact you with the results. You can take MBTI for free online, and you receive your score and a report immediately. It is particular useful in relating the test to the workplace and in explaining how different types handle different jobs and team situations.
This approach will allow you: (1) to assess your strengths and weaknesses, (2) to obtain feedback from others on your strengths and weaknesses, (3) to establish your goals, (5) to map out a plan to achieve those goals.
Categories of Nonverbal Communication
Appearance
Paralanguage
Kinesics
Occulesics
Proxemics
Facial expressions
Olfactics
Chronomics
The Following Suggestions to Improve Your Nonverbal Communication Skills
Learn as much as possible about any culture in which you will be interacting.
Do not judge someone’s actions out of context or leave the actions unexplored when important to you or the organization.
Develop your understanding or sensitivity to nonverbal cues.
Assess your own use of nonverbal communication.
Leaving: “listening out of any discussion of communication” means leaving out at least 40 to percent of the communication process. Good listening skills are essential, and the lack of them hinders many people’s careers. If you are not sure whether you are a good listener, you should take an inventory of your listening habits, either by making a list on your own, asking someone you trust to give you feedback, or taking a listening assessment. A little self-awareness will help you realize if improvement is needed and how much.
The mentor and the protégé must establish together an approach for working with each other and, if appropriate, set up a development plan with agreed upon objectives. They will also need to communicate regularly, but the protégé should be mindful of the mentor’s time commitments and be realistic in his or her expectations. Mentors, on the other hand, owe it to protégés not to commit to more than they can deliver and to establish boundaries.
The following steps should work effectively when providing feedback in most business situations:
Be well prepared for the feedback session.
Create a receptive environment.
Assume a comfortable demeanor.
Start by setting the context for the meeting.
Move quickly into your main objectives, which should not be so numerous they overwhelm.
Ensure throughout that the receiver understands your points
Be very specific about the actions you expect the receiver to undertake as a result of this feedback session and the timing for completing them.
Realizing the value of cultural differences is a key component of emotional intelligence. Only by understanding and appreciating cultural diversity can you know how best to communicate with all of the different audiences that form the complexion of most of the world’s corporation today.
Culture is learned and shared equally by others of the same culture whereas personality is highly individual and influenced by our genes and our environment.
Cultures and professions can be arrayed on a spectrum ranging from low context to high context. Low context cultures depend relatively little on existing relationships for meaning in communication and rely instead on explicit verbal messages. High context cultures rely more extensively on relationships to understand meaning and place less importance on verbal messages.
The importance of context in a culture, high or low, influences how individuals approach exchanges of information and determines how messages flow between people and levels of organization.
Time is a commodity and is meant to be measured and managed, conserved or wasted, spent wisely or foolishly. Events are sequentially, one at a time, and this schedule takes precedence over relationships and people.
Language has been described as the “central influence on culture and one of the most highly changed symbols of a culture or a nation. All cultural levels have language differences: industries, professions, functions, and even genders.
Cultures differ tremendously in how they view power and equality. Some believe in strict hierarchies with clear distinctions between levels and formalized respect for people at the higher levels of an organization. In other words, for some cultures, titles and position matter more than they do for other cultures.
Chapter 9 EN Managing Difficult Negotiations: Individual Approaches
It is not uncommon for negotiations, especially distributive ones, to become contentious to the point of breakdown. In extreme cases, conflict escalates and interpersonal enmity increases. Negotiations are “difficult to resolve” to the extent that the process of conflict resolution is characterized by the following dynamics:
The Atmosphere is Charged with Anger, Frustration, and Resentment
Channels of Communication Are Closed or Constrained
The Original Issues at Stake Have Become Blurred and Ill Defined
The Parties Tend to Perceive Great Differences in Their Respective Positions
The Parties Become More Locked In to Their Initial Negotiating Positions
People on the Same Side Tend to View Each Other Favorably
Mayer suggests that dispute resolution involves three major components in strategies for resolving impasse—joint approaches:
Cognitive resolution
Emotional resolution
Behavioral resolution
Through any number of different avenues—breakdowns in communication, escalation of anger and mistrust, polarization of positions and refusal to compromise, the issuance of ultimatums, or even the avoidance of conflict—negotiations often hit an impasse. Productive dialogue stops. The parties may continue talking, but the communication is usually characterized by trying to sell or force one’s own position, talking about the other’s unreasonable position and uncooperative behavior, or both. When these breakdowns occur, the parties may simply agree to recess, cool off, and come back tomorrow. More commonly, however, the parties break off negotiation and walk away angry and upset. Although they may privately wish there was some way to get back together, they usually don’t know how to arrange a reconciliation.
There are five major strategies that negotiators can use to get detailed negotiations back on track and return to a more productive flow of events:
Reduce tension by separating themselves from one another through cooling off periods, talking about emotions and feelings, or attempting to synchronize de-escalation of the conflict.
Improve the accuracy of communication by role reversal or mirroring the other’s statements.
Keep the number of issues under control so that issues are managed effectively, new issues are not carelessly added, and large issues are divided into smaller ones.
Search for common ground rules and effective time management, developing common expectations through a “covenant,” and reframing.
Enhancing the desirability of the options and alternatives for both parties by providing “yesable” proposals, asking for different decisions, sweetening offers, and using objective criteria to evaluate solutions.
The tools that we discussed are broad in function and in application, and they represent self-help for negotiators in dealing with stalled or problematic exchanges. None of these methods and remedies is a panacea, and each should be chosen and applied with sensitivity to the needs and limitations of the situations and of the negotiators involved. A truly confrontational breakdown, especially one that involves agreements of great impact or importance, sometimes justifies the introduction of individuals of agencies who themselves are not party to the dispute.
The Atmosphere is Charged with Anger, Frustration, and Resentment
Channels of Communication Are Closed or Constrained
The Original Issues at Stake Have Become Blurred and Ill Defined
The Parties Tend to Perceive Great Differences in Their Respective Positions
The Parties Become More Locked In to Their Initial Negotiating Positions
People on the Same Side Tend to View Each Other Favorably
Mayer suggests that dispute resolution involves three major components in strategies for resolving impasse—joint approaches:
Cognitive resolution
Emotional resolution
Behavioral resolution
Through any number of different avenues—breakdowns in communication, escalation of anger and mistrust, polarization of positions and refusal to compromise, the issuance of ultimatums, or even the avoidance of conflict—negotiations often hit an impasse. Productive dialogue stops. The parties may continue talking, but the communication is usually characterized by trying to sell or force one’s own position, talking about the other’s unreasonable position and uncooperative behavior, or both. When these breakdowns occur, the parties may simply agree to recess, cool off, and come back tomorrow. More commonly, however, the parties break off negotiation and walk away angry and upset. Although they may privately wish there was some way to get back together, they usually don’t know how to arrange a reconciliation.
There are five major strategies that negotiators can use to get detailed negotiations back on track and return to a more productive flow of events:
Reduce tension by separating themselves from one another through cooling off periods, talking about emotions and feelings, or attempting to synchronize de-escalation of the conflict.
Improve the accuracy of communication by role reversal or mirroring the other’s statements.
Keep the number of issues under control so that issues are managed effectively, new issues are not carelessly added, and large issues are divided into smaller ones.
Search for common ground rules and effective time management, developing common expectations through a “covenant,” and reframing.
Enhancing the desirability of the options and alternatives for both parties by providing “yesable” proposals, asking for different decisions, sweetening offers, and using objective criteria to evaluate solutions.
The tools that we discussed are broad in function and in application, and they represent self-help for negotiators in dealing with stalled or problematic exchanges. None of these methods and remedies is a panacea, and each should be chosen and applied with sensitivity to the needs and limitations of the situations and of the negotiators involved. A truly confrontational breakdown, especially one that involves agreements of great impact or importance, sometimes justifies the introduction of individuals of agencies who themselves are not party to the dispute.
Chapter 8 EN Global Negotiation Summary
This chapter examined various aspects of a growing field of negotiation that explores the complexities of negotiating across borders. We began the chapter with a discussion of the American negotiating style, from both American and non-American perspectives. While there is a great deal of consistency in perceptions of the American negotiating style (e.g., Americans are straightforward, impatient), it is important to remember that there is also a lot of variability within cultures (i.e., not every American negotiates in the same way).
Next, we examined the results of a research program by John Graham and his colleagues that compared American negotiators with negotiators from several countries. Graham and his colleagues found that regardless of where negotiators were from, they negotiated the same level of outcomes on a standard negotiation task. The process of negotiation differed across countries, however, suggesting that there is more than one way to attain the same negotiation outcome. Finally, this research program also suggested that negotiators seem to use different strategies when negotiating with people domestically and internationally.
We then examined some of the factors that make cross-border negotiations different. Phatak and Habib suggest that both the environmental and the immediate context have important effects on global negotiations. We then discussed Salacuse’s description of the environmental factors that influence global negotiations: (1) political and legal pluralism, (2) international economics, (3) foreign governments and bureaucracies, (4) instability, (5) ideology, and (6) culture. We added one more environmental factor—external stakeholders—from Phatak and Habib. Phatak and Habib’s immediate context factors were discussed next: (1) relative bargaining power, (2) levels of conflict, (3) relationship between negotiators, (4) desired outcomes, and (5) immediate stakeholders. Each of these environmental and immediate context factors acts to make cross-border negotiations more difficult, and effective international negotiators need to understand how to manage them. We concluded this section of the chapter with a discussion of how to manage them. We concluded this section of the chapter with a discussion of how to make sense of global negotiation outcomes in light of the multiple factors that can simultaneously influence them.
Next, we turned to a discussion of Hoftede’s work on culture, the factor that has been most frequently used to explain differences in negotiations across borders. Hofstede defines culture as the shared values and beliefs held by a group of people, and is the most comprehensive study of cultural dimensions in international business. He concluded that four dimensions could summarize cultural differences: (1) individualism/collectivism, (2) power distance, (3) masculinity/femininity, and (4) uncertainty avoidance.
We then examine how cultural differences can influence negotiations. Foster, adapting work by Weiss and Stripp, suggests that culture can influence global negotiations in several ways, including (1) the definition of negotiation, (2) the selection of negotiators, (3) protocol, (4) communication, (5) time, (6) risk propensity, (7) groups versus individuals, and (8) the nature of agreements.
This chapter concluded with a discussion of how to manage cultural differences when negotiating across borders. Weiss presents eight different culturally responsive strategies that negotiators can use with a negotiator from a different culture. Some of these strategies may be used individually, whether others used jointly with the other negotiator. Weiss indicates that one critical aspect of choosing the correct strategy for a given negotiation is the degree of familiarity (low, moderate, or high) that a negotiator has with the other culture. However, even those with high familiarity with another culture are faced with a daunting task if they want to modify their strategy completely when they deal with the other culture.
Next, we examined the results of a research program by John Graham and his colleagues that compared American negotiators with negotiators from several countries. Graham and his colleagues found that regardless of where negotiators were from, they negotiated the same level of outcomes on a standard negotiation task. The process of negotiation differed across countries, however, suggesting that there is more than one way to attain the same negotiation outcome. Finally, this research program also suggested that negotiators seem to use different strategies when negotiating with people domestically and internationally.
We then examined some of the factors that make cross-border negotiations different. Phatak and Habib suggest that both the environmental and the immediate context have important effects on global negotiations. We then discussed Salacuse’s description of the environmental factors that influence global negotiations: (1) political and legal pluralism, (2) international economics, (3) foreign governments and bureaucracies, (4) instability, (5) ideology, and (6) culture. We added one more environmental factor—external stakeholders—from Phatak and Habib. Phatak and Habib’s immediate context factors were discussed next: (1) relative bargaining power, (2) levels of conflict, (3) relationship between negotiators, (4) desired outcomes, and (5) immediate stakeholders. Each of these environmental and immediate context factors acts to make cross-border negotiations more difficult, and effective international negotiators need to understand how to manage them. We concluded this section of the chapter with a discussion of how to manage them. We concluded this section of the chapter with a discussion of how to make sense of global negotiation outcomes in light of the multiple factors that can simultaneously influence them.
Next, we turned to a discussion of Hoftede’s work on culture, the factor that has been most frequently used to explain differences in negotiations across borders. Hofstede defines culture as the shared values and beliefs held by a group of people, and is the most comprehensive study of cultural dimensions in international business. He concluded that four dimensions could summarize cultural differences: (1) individualism/collectivism, (2) power distance, (3) masculinity/femininity, and (4) uncertainty avoidance.
We then examine how cultural differences can influence negotiations. Foster, adapting work by Weiss and Stripp, suggests that culture can influence global negotiations in several ways, including (1) the definition of negotiation, (2) the selection of negotiators, (3) protocol, (4) communication, (5) time, (6) risk propensity, (7) groups versus individuals, and (8) the nature of agreements.
This chapter concluded with a discussion of how to manage cultural differences when negotiating across borders. Weiss presents eight different culturally responsive strategies that negotiators can use with a negotiator from a different culture. Some of these strategies may be used individually, whether others used jointly with the other negotiator. Weiss indicates that one critical aspect of choosing the correct strategy for a given negotiation is the degree of familiarity (low, moderate, or high) that a negotiator has with the other culture. However, even those with high familiarity with another culture are faced with a daunting task if they want to modify their strategy completely when they deal with the other culture.
Chapter 7 EN Ethics in Negotiation Summary
Ethics are broadly applied social standards for what is right or wrong in a particular situation, or a process for setting those standards for what is right or wrong in a particular situation, or a process for setting those standards. They differ from morals, which are individual and personal beliefs about what is right and wrong. Ethics proceed from particular philosophies, which purport to (a) define the nature of the world in which we live, and (b) prescribe rules for living together.
Explanations and justifications are self-serving rationalizations for one’s own conduct. First, they allow the negotiator to convince others—particularly the victim—that conduct that would ordinarily be wrong in a given situation is acceptable. The adequacy of these explanations to others has a strong effect on mitigating the impact of deceptive behavior to themselves as well. We propose that the more frequently negotiators engage in this self-serving justification process, the more judgments about ethical standards and values will become biased, leading to a lessened ability to make accurate judgments about the truth. Moreover, although the tactics were initially used to gain power in a negotiation, the negotiators will be seen as having low credibility or integrity, and will be treated as people who will act exploitatively if the opportunity arises. Negotiators with these characteristics will probably be unsuccessful over time unless they are skillful at continually staying ahead of the negative reputation generated by their conduct.
The primary factors that negotiators consider when they decide whether particular tactics are deceptive and unethical—we believe that negotiation process raises several critical ethical issues. Much of what has been written on negotiating behavior has been strongly normative about ethics and has prescribed “shoulds” and “should nots”. We do not believe that this approach facilitates the understanding of how negotiators actually make decisions about when and where to use specific tactics. To understand this process better, we have approached the study of tactic choice from a decision-making framework, examining the ethical overtones of these choices. We also briefly discussed the ways in which negotiators can respond to another party who may be using deceptive tactics.
We began by considering several negotiation cases, show how ethical questions can be critical to the selection of particular strategic and tactical options.
We proposed that negotiators who choose to use an unethical tactic usually decide to do so to increase their negotiating power. Power is gained by manipulating the perceived base of accurate information in the negotiation, getting better information about the other party’s plan, or undermining the other party’s ability to achieve his or her objectives. We then presented a simple model of ethical decision making.
Research on negotiators ethics and on various aspects of this model leads us to the following conclusions:
While individual negotiators may disagree as to which negotiating tactics are ethical and which are unethical, the research reported here suggests that there is much more convergence than might have been expected.
The decision to use a deceptive tactic can probably best be understood through a decision making model. It is clear that many individual differences and situational variables are also likely to affect that decision.
In deciding to use a deceptive tactic, a negotiator is likely to be more heavily influenced by (a) his or her own motivations, (b) expectations of what the other negotiator and the other party.
Negotiators who have considered the use of deceptive tactics in the past or who are considering their use should ask themselves these questions:
(a) Will they really enhance my power and help me achieve my objective?
(b) How will the use of these tactics affect the quality of my relationship with the other party in the future?
(c) How will the use of these tactics affect my reputation as a negotiator?
Negotiators frequently overlook the fact that, although unethical or expedient tactics my get them what they want in the short run, these same tactics typically lead to diminished effectiveness in the long run..
Explanations and justifications are self-serving rationalizations for one’s own conduct. First, they allow the negotiator to convince others—particularly the victim—that conduct that would ordinarily be wrong in a given situation is acceptable. The adequacy of these explanations to others has a strong effect on mitigating the impact of deceptive behavior to themselves as well. We propose that the more frequently negotiators engage in this self-serving justification process, the more judgments about ethical standards and values will become biased, leading to a lessened ability to make accurate judgments about the truth. Moreover, although the tactics were initially used to gain power in a negotiation, the negotiators will be seen as having low credibility or integrity, and will be treated as people who will act exploitatively if the opportunity arises. Negotiators with these characteristics will probably be unsuccessful over time unless they are skillful at continually staying ahead of the negative reputation generated by their conduct.
The primary factors that negotiators consider when they decide whether particular tactics are deceptive and unethical—we believe that negotiation process raises several critical ethical issues. Much of what has been written on negotiating behavior has been strongly normative about ethics and has prescribed “shoulds” and “should nots”. We do not believe that this approach facilitates the understanding of how negotiators actually make decisions about when and where to use specific tactics. To understand this process better, we have approached the study of tactic choice from a decision-making framework, examining the ethical overtones of these choices. We also briefly discussed the ways in which negotiators can respond to another party who may be using deceptive tactics.
We began by considering several negotiation cases, show how ethical questions can be critical to the selection of particular strategic and tactical options.
We proposed that negotiators who choose to use an unethical tactic usually decide to do so to increase their negotiating power. Power is gained by manipulating the perceived base of accurate information in the negotiation, getting better information about the other party’s plan, or undermining the other party’s ability to achieve his or her objectives. We then presented a simple model of ethical decision making.
Research on negotiators ethics and on various aspects of this model leads us to the following conclusions:
While individual negotiators may disagree as to which negotiating tactics are ethical and which are unethical, the research reported here suggests that there is much more convergence than might have been expected.
The decision to use a deceptive tactic can probably best be understood through a decision making model. It is clear that many individual differences and situational variables are also likely to affect that decision.
In deciding to use a deceptive tactic, a negotiator is likely to be more heavily influenced by (a) his or her own motivations, (b) expectations of what the other negotiator and the other party.
Negotiators who have considered the use of deceptive tactics in the past or who are considering their use should ask themselves these questions:
(a) Will they really enhance my power and help me achieve my objective?
(b) How will the use of these tactics affect the quality of my relationship with the other party in the future?
(c) How will the use of these tactics affect my reputation as a negotiator?
Negotiators frequently overlook the fact that, although unethical or expedient tactics my get them what they want in the short run, these same tactics typically lead to diminished effectiveness in the long run..
Chapter 6 EN Finding and Using Negotiation Leverage
There are three major sources of leverage: information and expertise, control over resources, structural position, and the location within an organizational structure (which leads to either formal authority or informal power based on where one is located relative to flows of information or resources). Imbalances in these power sources across the table are inevitable, but effective negotiators can take steps to alter the power dynamics before and during negotiation.
By leverage, we mean the process of gaining or using various sources of power in order to obtain and use temporary advantage over the other negotiating party.
Kolb and Williams identify three strategic levers available to help people navigate the shadow negotiation:
Power Moves
Process Moves
Appreciative Moves
Negotiators may also want to alter party’s beliefs about the importance of his own objectives and convince him that his concessions are not as valuable as he first believed. Negotiators may portray themselves as likable people who should be treated decently. All these efforts are designed to use information, as well as the qualities of the sender and receiver of that information, to adjust the party’s position, perceptions, and opinions; we call this group of tactics influence.
Influence is based on an approach developed by Richard Petty and John Cacioppo that suggest that there are two general paths by which people are persuaded . The first path occurs consciously and involves integration of the message into the individual’s previously existing cognitive structures (thoughts, intellectual, frameworks, etc.)
In order to examine a very large number of influence (leverage) tools that one could use in negotiation, these tools were considered in two broad categories: influence that occurs through the central route to persuasion, and influence that occurs through the peripheral route to persuasion.
Our discussion of peripheral routes to influence will consider three sets of strategies: message aspects, attributes of the persuader, and elements of the influence context.
Facts and ideas are clearly important in changing another person’s opinions and perceptions, but the effectiveness of a persuasion effort depends on how the facts and ideas are selected, organized, and presented. There are three major issues to consider when constructing a message: the content of the message (the facts and topics that should be covered), structure of the message (how the topics and facts should be arranged and organized), and the delivery style (how the message should be presented).
We consider how the receiver—the target of influence—either can shape and direct what the sender is communicating, or can intellectually resist the persuasive effects of the message. Effective negotiators are skilled not only at crafting persuasive messages, but also at playing the role of skilled “consumers” of the messages that others direct their way.
By leverage, we mean the process of gaining or using various sources of power in order to obtain and use temporary advantage over the other negotiating party.
Kolb and Williams identify three strategic levers available to help people navigate the shadow negotiation:
Power Moves
Process Moves
Appreciative Moves
Negotiators may also want to alter party’s beliefs about the importance of his own objectives and convince him that his concessions are not as valuable as he first believed. Negotiators may portray themselves as likable people who should be treated decently. All these efforts are designed to use information, as well as the qualities of the sender and receiver of that information, to adjust the party’s position, perceptions, and opinions; we call this group of tactics influence.
Influence is based on an approach developed by Richard Petty and John Cacioppo that suggest that there are two general paths by which people are persuaded . The first path occurs consciously and involves integration of the message into the individual’s previously existing cognitive structures (thoughts, intellectual, frameworks, etc.)
In order to examine a very large number of influence (leverage) tools that one could use in negotiation, these tools were considered in two broad categories: influence that occurs through the central route to persuasion, and influence that occurs through the peripheral route to persuasion.
Our discussion of peripheral routes to influence will consider three sets of strategies: message aspects, attributes of the persuader, and elements of the influence context.
Facts and ideas are clearly important in changing another person’s opinions and perceptions, but the effectiveness of a persuasion effort depends on how the facts and ideas are selected, organized, and presented. There are three major issues to consider when constructing a message: the content of the message (the facts and topics that should be covered), structure of the message (how the topics and facts should be arranged and organized), and the delivery style (how the message should be presented).
We consider how the receiver—the target of influence—either can shape and direct what the sender is communicating, or can intellectually resist the persuasive effects of the message. Effective negotiators are skilled not only at crafting persuasive messages, but also at playing the role of skilled “consumers” of the messages that others direct their way.
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